Home › Kidney disease and magnesium › Magnesium and kidney stones. What are kidney stones?
Kidney stones are formed by the crystallization of certain excretory products. Kidney stones are medically known as nephrolithiasis or renal calculi. Kidney stones are formed from imbalanced mineral ions.
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When the urine is supersaturated with minerals salts and chemicals such as calcium oxalate, struvite (ammonium magnesium phosphate) or uric acid, there is mineral crystallization in the kidney.
In fact, in normal conditions, factors like calgranulin, a protein formed in the kidney, citrate and magnesium in the urine inhibit renal stone formation. Chronic dehydration, certain medicines and highly acidic or alkaline urine can promote renal calculi. Small kidney stones are passed out painlessly in urine.
But some renal calculi may block part of the urinary system causing severe pain in the abdomen and groin and also cause kidney inflammation. A larger stone passing through ureter, the slender tube connecting kidney to the urinary bladder, can induce some of the worst pain that humans can experience.
Does magnesium inhibit kidney stones?
Yes. Recent research by Julie M. Riley et al, published in Journal of Endourology, December 2013, throws light on the beneficial effects of Mg2+ on kidney.
The research team had conducted molecular dynamics simulations and studied the interaction between calcium (Ca2+) and oxalate (Ox2−) ions with and without Mg2+.
The presence of Mg2+ in the medium had resulted in inhibition of calcium oxalate formation. Higher the concentration of Mg2+, greater is the effect on blocking calcium oxalate formation. The reaction was synergistic with citrate in inhibiting calcium oxalate formation. The inhibitory action continued even in acidic pH environment.
Julie M. Riley et al. concluded that,
The presence of magnesium ions tends to destabilize calcium oxalate ion pairs and reduce the size of their aggregates. Mg2+ inhibitory effect is synergistic with citrate and remains effective in acidic environments.
Mg2+ through food sources can help in preventing kidney stone formation. Magnesium rich food sources like pumpkin seeds, greens and nuts can help in boosting the mineral intake. Its supplement in the form of oxide, hydroxide, citrate or malate salts of Mg2+ may also be taken. The dietary surveys in USA reveal that the intakes of magnesium are lower than the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). It is estimated that nearly one million Americans develop kidney stones each year.
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References:
1.http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/ Magnesium-HealthProfessional
2.Massey L. Magnesium therapy for nephrolithiasis. Magnes Res. 2005;18(2):123-6.
3.Riley Julie M., Kim Hyunjin, Averch Timothy D. Kim Hyung J. Effect of Magnesium on Calcium and Oxalate Ion Binding. Journal of Endourology. December 2013, 27(12): 1487-1492.
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Home › Magnesium contraindications › Magnesium and kidney disease.
Magnesium homeostasis is brought about mainly by kidneys and intestines. To a moderate extent bones also contribute to magnesium balance.
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The renal reabsorption and excretion of magnesium is highly adaptable. The kidneys can eliminate excess of magnesium in the blood by increased excretion. In chronic kidney disease (CKD), with the decline of renal function the ability to regulate magnesium deteriorates.
In the initial and moderate stages of chronic kidney disease the fractional excretion of magnesium is increased to maintain its homeostasis. The increased excretion compensates for the decline in glomerular filtration rate. As the CKD progresses the increased excretion is inadequate to compensate the steadily increasing serum magnesium levels. With the creatinine clearance falling below 30 mL/min, the symptoms of hypermagnesemia set in.
Chronic kidney disease is the progressive deterioration of renal function over a period of several months. The known contributing factors of CKD are, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, glomerulonephritis and familial predisposition.
The progression of CKD is categorized into five stages with relation to the decline in creatinine clearance. Stage 1 is the initial stage with few symptoms, whereas stage 5 is the end stage of CKD requiring dialysis or kidney transplant.
Initial and moderate CKD may be asymptomatic. The CKD is diagnosed by measuring creatinine clearance and serum creatine levels. High level of serum creatinine indicates decline in glomerular filtration rate. As the CKD advances the creatinine clearance declines and serum creatinine, magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+) and phosphate levels increase. Urinalysis will reveal red blood cells and proteins in the urine.
The increased P+, phosphate and Mg2+ and the resultant hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia and hypermagnesemia lead to many cascading effects causing diseases like hypocalcemia, secondary hyperparathyroidism, renal osteodystrophy, vascular calcification, metabolic acidosis, iron deficiency anemia, impaired cardiac function and atherosclerosis. The end stage chronic kidney disease, apart from causing excess Mg2+ related symptoms, causes fluid retention in the body. In certain studies, it was found that low serum levels of magnesium had lead to decline in the kidney function.
Home › Magnesium daily requirement › Magnesium homeostasis › Magnesium interactions and contraindications.
Magnesium (Mg) interactions can decrease the absorption of some medications. Magnesium can interact and bind with them, creating non-absorbable complexes in the gut.
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In some cases the efficacy of the medication may be excessively enhanced as Magnesium may have similar functions in the body. In both the interactions, the required therapeutic effect is not achieved and adds to the health problem.
There are some interactions wherein Mg2+ may compete with the medication or nutrient for the same transient receptor potential (TRP) channel for entry into the body. In almost all the above situations, by giving sufficient time gap between the intake of medicine and magnesium, the interaction can be overcome. It is generally advised to take the medicine at least two hours before Mg supplementation. Alternatively the medicine may be taken at least four hours after the supplement.
Magnesium is contraindicated in certain health conditions and also while undergoing certain therapies to stall possible severe adverse effects on the health. In such contraindicated situations, the supplements should not be taken. If at all there is a critical condition wherein magnesium supplementation is also required, close monitoring of the health of the patient in a medical facility is required.
magnesium supplement interactions and contraindications
Magnesium interactions
Various medications such quinolone antibiotics, aminoglycoside antibiotics, tetracycline antibiotics, bisphosphonates, calcium channel blockers, muscle relaxants, potassium-sparing diuretics and levothyroxine have been found to have interactions with magnesium salts. These medicines and Mg supplement must be administered at least two hours apart to conserve the efficacy.
Magnesium may interact with aminoglycoside antibiotics and cause neuromuscular weakness. Some of the aminoglycoside antibiotics are, kanamycin, tobramycin, gentamicin, and neomycin, vancomycin, erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin and streptomycin.
Quinolone antibiotics
Magnesium supplements may interact and reduce the absorption of quinolone antibiotics. Taking the doses at least two hours apart may reduce the loss of efficacy of the antibiotics. Some of the quinolone antibiotics are, ciprofloxacin, clinafloxacin, enoxacin, gatifloxacin, norfloxacin, gemifloxacin, sparfloxacin, moxifloxacin, trovafloxacin, levofloxacin and grepafloxacin.
Tetracycline antibiotics
Magnesium may interact and bind to tetracycline antibiotics in the gut and reduces their efficacy. The doses may be taken at least two hours apart to improve efficacy. Some of the tetracycline antibiotics are tetracycline, demeclocycline, oxytetracycline, doxycycline and minocycline.
Antifungal medications
Ketoconazole is an antifungal medication and using ketoconazole together with magnesium oxide is found to decrease the effects of ketoconazole. Separation of the doses by at least two hours is recommended to avoid interaction.
Interaction with bisphosphonates
Bisphosphonates prevent the loss of bone mass and are prescribed to treat osteoporosis and similar diseases. Magnesium supplements interact and decrease the absorption of bisphosphonates. Taking doses at least two hours apart can prevent loss of efficacy. Some of the bisphosphonates are, pamidronate, alendronate, neridronate, etidronate, olpadronate, risedronate, zoledronate and tiludronate.
Calcium channel blockers
Calcium channel blockers are medications to lower blood pressure (hypertension). Magnesium salts also lower the blood pressure. Taking magnesium with the high blood pressure medication can cause the blood pressure to go too low. Some medications for high blood pressure are aranidipine, nifedipine, azelnidipine, verapamil, lacidipine, diltiazem, manidipine, isradipine, pranidipine, felodipine, efonidipine and amlodipine.
Interaction with muscle relaxants
Magnesium salts are known to relax muscles. Taking Mg supplements along with muscle relaxants can make the side effects of these relaxants to come to fore. Some of the relaxants are, carisoprodol, metaxalone, pipecuronium, methocarbamol, orphenadrine, cyclobenzaprine, gallamine, atracurium, pancuronium and succinylcholine.
Potassium-sparing diuretics
Potassium-sparing diuretics promote the retention of both potassium and magnesium in the body. If magnesium supplements are also taken hypermagnesemia may be caused.
Tiludronate & Alendronate
Tiludronate and alendronate are medicines prescribed for osteoporosis. Mg salts interact and interfere with their absorption in the intestines. Staggering the doses by two hours or more can improve the efficacy.
Interaction with levothyroxine
Levothyroxine is a medication prescribed for underactive thyroid. Magnesium salts interact with the medication and render it ineffective.
Diabetes medicines
Magnesium salts can interact and increase the efficacy of tolazamide, an oral blood glucose lowering drug prescribed for patients with Type 2 diabetes. There is a possibility of hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and the patient must be counseled to monitor his blood sugar and handle the situation. Similarly taking Mg salts either with glipizide or with glyburide may cause blood sugar to go too low due to interaction.
Quinidine
Quinidine is an antiarrhythmic agent and it works by blocking the fast inward sodium current (INa). Magnesium is found to interact and increase the blood levels and efficacy of quinidine with symptoms of excessive effects like ringing in the ears, hearing loss, visual problems, loose stools, headache, dizziness etc. A dose adjustment may have to be done by the health care provider.
HIV medications
Abacavir/dolutegravir/lamivudine are prescribed for HIV infection. The concomitant administration of magnesium supplement is found to decrease the effectiveness of these antiviral drugs.
Acetaminophen (paracetamol)
Magnesium salts have been found to interact and reduce the efficacy of paracetamol. If both are prescribed, give sufficient gap of time for the medications.
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
Acetylsalicylic acid efficacy is reduced when it is taken along with Mg. Mg salts may be taken two hours before aspirin or four hours after the mineral intake.
Penicillamine
Penicillamine is prescribed to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Mg salts interact and decrease its effectiveness. The doses may staggered to reduce the interaction.
Magnesium contraindications
In certain diseases and health conditions, magnesium is contraindicated. Taking the mineral salts in such contraindicated conditions can adversely affect the health, sometimes become life threatening.
Contraindicated in myasthenia gravis
Myasthenia gravis is either an autoimmune or congenital neuromuscular disorder wherein there is progressive muscle weakness and fatigue. The neuromuscular transmission is decreased in such patients. Magnesium being a neuromuscular relaxant, is contraindicated as it may further depress the condition leading to cardiac or pulmonary arrest.
Contraindicated heart problems
Magnesium supplementation is contraindicated in several heart problems. Heart problems like atrial fibrillation (irregular heart beat), atrioventricular block (or AV block) or myocardial infarction (heart attack) may get worsened in case of Mg supplementation. Magnesium sulfate injection is contraindicated and should not be administered parenterally in patients with heart block or myocardial damage.
Contraindicated renal impairment
In patients with renal impairment magnesium salts are contraindicated. As there is subnormal urine output, the Mg2+ may get accumulated in the blood serum giving rise the hypermagnesemia and related health problem.
Contraindicated with anticoagulants (Warfarin)
In patients under treatment with warfarin, magnesium supplementation is contraindicated. Mg also has the effect of thinning blood and taking it along with warfarin may lead to bleeding and haemorrhage.
Contraindicated in bradycardia (slow heart rate)
Magnesium supplementation is contraindicated in person with hypotension or slow heart rate. Consuming Mg tablets by such persons can lead to acute severe hypotension and the heart may stop for good.
Contraindicated in bowel hypomotility or intestinal blockage
Magnesium supplementation is contraindicated in persons with chronic, acute constipation or intestinal blockage. As the route to remove excess of ingested magnesium is blocked, the serum levels may shoot up causing severe hypermagnesemia.
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Home › Magnesium daily requirement › Magnesium homeostasis › Magnesium supplement side effects
Magnesium (Mg) supplements rarely cause side effects in healthy individuals as excess Mg is removed and excreted by the kidneys.
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Magnesium is available in multivitamin-mineral supplements. Magnesium is also available in dietary supplements and magnesium fortified foods. Compounds of magnesium as aspartate, citrate, lactate, and chloride are readily absorbed. Mg is also present in certain laxatives and antacids, which may cause mild side effects.
Magnesium is naturally available in plant food such as leafy green vegetables, seeds, nuts, and whole cereal products. Eating balanced diet rich with fruits and vegetables can contribute much to the daily requirement of the mineral. However, dietary surveys in the United States consistently show that a majority of Americans of all ages ingest less magnesium than their daily demand. The situation is due excessive emphasis on calcium supplementation as well as erratic eating habits, nutrient-depleted diet and skewed nutrient ratios.
Considering the possible harmful outcome of megadose of magnesium, the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (USA) has established the upper limit for magnesium in dietary supplements. Please note that this daily upper limit pertains only to supplements. There is no limitation for magnesium sourced from natural foods. The upper limits are: children 1–3 years - 65 mg; children 4–8 years - 110 mg; children 9–18 years - 350 mg; and adults - 350 mg.
Side effects of magnesium supplements
The common supplements of Mg are compounds containing aspartate, taurate, carbonate, oxide, hydroxide, citrate, lactate, glycinate and chloride of Mg, which are generally well tolerated.
In very rare cases Mg tablets and liquids can cause severe allergic reactions. Persons developing symptoms like angioedema, itching, difficulty in breathing, swelling of the mouth and throat or tightness in the chest must seek medical aid immediately.
In some people these supplements may cause abdominal pain, upset stomach, bloating, nausea, vomiting, cramps, loose stools and diarrhea.
In a patient suffering from diarrhea, taking Mg pills can worsen or prolong diarrhea.
Patients with bleeding disorders should consult their health provider, as magnesium supplements may slow down blood clotting and increase the risk of side effects like bleeding and hemorrhage.
Healthy functioning of kidney is essential for removing metabolic wastes as well as removing excess minerals and salts from the body. In persons with impaired renal function, Magnesium tablets can cause several side effects.
Mg tablets, liquids and intravenous injection have been found to have side effects and interactions and are contraindicated in patients taking certain medications.
Seek medical advice when you are taking calcium supplements. The calcium to magnesium ratio is very important for proper absorption and utilization of the minerals. The side effects of excess magnesium is calcium depletion.
Mg pills can increase, decrease or block the efficacy of certain medications such as diuretics, heart medicines, diabetic medicines and antibiotics.
Mg pills can interact With certain medications and create harmful health conditions.
Weng YM et al reported a case of prolonged hypotension and hypoxic encephalopathy caused by rebound hypermagnesemia. The magnesium oxide tablets taken by the patient for constipation were retained in the gastrointestinal tract without evacuation leading side effects like continued absorption and hypermagnesemia.
Patients with gastrointestinal diseases, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, heart diseases, diabetes, pregnant women under preeclampsia treatment or renal diseases should take medical opinion before taking magnesium supplements, as in some cases the diseases may worsen with several side effects.
Some of the severe side effects when megadoses of magnesium supplements, antacids or laxatives are taken, especially when there is renal impairment or severe bowel impaction are given below:
Lethargy,
nausea,
hypotension,
hyporeflexia,
hypoventilation,
vasodilatation,
arrhythmia,
hypoxic encephalopathy,
bradycardia,
asystole and
cardiac arrest.
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Home › Magnesium daily requirement › Magnesium overdose › Regulation of magnesium homeostasis (balance)
Magnesium (Mg) is the second most abundant mineral in the human body after calcium. Magnesium (Mg2+) is the fourth most abundant cation in the body and the second most common intracellular cation after potassium (K+).
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The magnesium homeostasis or balance inside the body is tightly regulated. Intestines and kidneys regulate the absorption and excretion of the mineral to maintain its balance within a narrow range.
The consequences of altered regulation in Mg2+ homeostasis can be devastating to the body. Hypermagnesemia, excess magnesium in the blood serum, can cause many neurological and cardiovascular disorders. Similarly, hypomagnesemia, insufficient magnesium serum levels impairing the regulation of homeostasis, can affect the nervous and cardiovascular systems with different clinical manifestations.
Regulation of magnesium homeostasis in blood serum
Magnesium homeostasis is regulated by the intestinal absorption, renal excretion and bone turnover.
Intestinal absorption and Mg2+ regulation
The daily requirement of magnesium is around 300 to 400 mg. Only 25 to 75% of the ingested magnesium is absorbed by the human body.
The intestinal absorption and then the regulation of homeostasis is dependent on the type of food source, dietary content and the existing body stores of the mineral. Intestinal absorption can occur by both passive and active transport.
The passive paracellular absorption takes place predominantly in small intestine. Mg2+ ions flow down to balance the concentration gradient between intestinal capillaries and the digested intestinal contents. In certain conducive conditions like the presence of absorbed Na+ and water, magnesium may also be absorbed by the colon in a passive manner.
Active transcellular transport of Mg2+ occurs only in colon. It is brought about by the transient receptor potential melastatin 6 (TRPM6) cation channel, which is the member of superfamily of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. TRPM6 gene encodes a protein containing an ion channel domain and a protein kinase domain.
TRPM6 gene is crucial for magnesium homeostasis and has an important role in epithelial magnesium transport and in the active renal and intestinal magnesium absorption. Mutations in this gene impair Mg2+ absorption in the gut and are associated with hypomagnesemia 1 (HOMG1) with secondary hypocalcemia and calcinosis.
Renal excretion and Mg2+ regulation
Regulation of the total body magnesium rests with the kidney. Kidney tightly matches the intestinal absorption magnesium with its excretion. Of the total plasma Mg2+, nearly 80% is filtered in the glomeruli. Nearly 85% of the filtered Mg2+ is reabsorbed passively along the nephron by a paracellular mechanism.
The proximal tubule reabsorbs 20% of the filtered Mg2+ and a two third is reabsorbed by the thick ascending limb of Henle (TAL). It is noteworthy that except for Mg2+ most of the other known ions are reabsorbed to a great extent in the proximal tubule. The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) reabsorbs 5 to 10% of the filtered Mg2+ by an active transcellular mechanism brought about by TRPM6 channel. The process in DCT ultimately regulates Mg2+ excretion. Normally 3-5% of the filtered Mg2+ is excreted.
Magnesium reservoir in bones
The skeleton stores more than 60% of Mg2+ and has a crucial role in the regulation of Mg2+ homeostasis and balance. Mg2+ is part of the hydroxyapatite crystalline structure of bone. Of the remaining balance of body magnesium, approximately 35% is distributed in the soft tissues. The blood serum with tight regulation of homeostasis contains less than 1% of magnesium. Only 50% of the blood magnesium is available as free Mg2+ ions for homeostasis regulation and the rest is bound to anions and proteins, especially albumin.
The mineral is leached from the bone to buffer and regulate the homeostasis in case of drop in the mineral balance. The down regulation of bone material is brought about by the increases in both osteoclast number and activity. In the situation of plentiful Mg2+ in nutrition and up regulation of the mineral homeostasis in the serum, the formation of new bone tissue and active mineralization is brought about by the increases in both osteoblast number and activity.
Intracellular magnesium homeostasis
Magnesium regulates various cellular functions. Metabolic or hormonal stimuli can bring about major changes in the intracellular homeostasis of eukaryotic cells by way of major fluxes of ions in either direction across the cell membrane and the membranes of cellular organelles. Much of the intracellular Mg2+ is localized in cellular organelles such as, mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is bound to phospholipids, proteins, nucleic acids, chromatin and nucleotides. Only a fraction of the intracellular Magnesium is found free in the lumen of these vesicles.
The intracellular magnesium homeostasis is dynamically maintained by a set of entry and exit processes differently regulated by endocrines and metabolic processes. The entry mechanism is brought about by TRPM6 and TRPM7 channels. The exit or extrusion of Mg2+ is by various processes brought about by ATP reactions or by hormones like catecholamine and glucagon.
Magnesium wasting disorders
Isolated autosomal recessive hypomagnesemia (IRH) is a Mg2+ wasting disease, caused due a mutation in the gene encoding epithelial growth factor (EGF) that is expressed in distal convoluted tubule (DCT) along with transient receptor potential melastatin 6 (TRPM6). In IRH the regulation of Mg2+ homeostasis is impaired.
Gitelman syndrome is characterized by hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis with hypomagnesemia and hypocalciuria. It is the most common monogenic disorder resulting in Mg2+ wasting, characterized by renal salt loss. Patients with this disorder have a mutation in the thiazide-sensitive Na+/Cl− co-transporter (NCC).
The rare monogenic disorder hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia (HSH) is due to a failure of regulation in the active transcellular reabsorption of Mg2+ for homeostasis from both the intestine and the kidney. It is caused due to a mutation in the transient receptor potential melastatin 6 (TRPM6).
Isolated dominant hypomagnesemia is caused by a defect in γ-subunit of the Na,K-ATPase with altered TRPM6 activity. The familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis is caused due to mutations in claudin-16/paracellin-1 or claudin-19 resulting in hampered regulation of magnesium homeostasis.
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Home › Magnesium deficiency diseases › Magnesium daily requirement What is the daily requirement of magnesium?
Magnesium (Mg) is the second most abundant mineral in the human body. The daily demand of magnesium is 350 mg for a healthy adult.
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Magnesium is essential for several biochemical reactions in the body. Magnesium is essential for protein synthesis, musculoskeletal function, cardiovascular function and conduction of nerve impulses.
Magnesium levels in the body is largely regulated by the kidneys and a healthy person excretes about 120 mg of the mineral daily. The Mg loss may be greater in certain systemic disorders and in such patients the daily demand may increase steeply.
Natural food sources, especially plant foods, are rich in Mg and one can get his daily requirements from his balanced food alone. However, dietary surveys in the United States consistently show that a majority of Americans of all ages ingest less magnesium than their daily demand. The situation is due to excessive emphasis on calcium supplementation as well as erratic eating habits, nutrient-depleted diet and skewed nutrient ratios.
In the initial stages of deficiency, the kidneys limit the urinary excretion of the mineral. When the daily ingestion is habitually lower than the requirement, deficiency symptoms and disorders occur. Certain diseases affecting the homeostasis of minerals, alcoholism and several medications may also induce magnesium loss from the body.
Magnesium daily requirement
Recommended Dietary Allowances
Age group
Boys/men
Girls/women
Pregnant women
Lactating women
Newborn to 6 months
*30 mg
*30 mg
-
-
7 to 12 months
*75 mg
*75 mg
-
-
1 to 3 years
80 mg
80 mg
-
-
4 to 8 years
130 mg
130 mg
-
-
9 to 13 years
240 mg
240 mg
-
-
14 to 18 years
410 mg
360 mg
400 mg
360 mg
19 to 30 years
400 mg
310 mg
350 mg
310 mg
31 to 50 years
420 mg
320 mg
360 mg
320 mg
More than 51 years
420 mg
320 mg
-
-
*Daily AI levels
Source: Institute of Medicine (IOM). Food and Nutrition Board (USA).
The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies has developed the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for magnesium. DRI is a system of nutrition recommendations used to assess the level of daily nutrient demand. The set of reference values used to plan and assess nutrient demand under DRI are, Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI) and Tolerable upper levels (UL).
RDA is the recommended quantity of the nutrient to meet the requisite of 97.5% of healthy individuals of every life stage of both the genders. Please note that it pertains to all sources of the nutrient including supplements. AI is the suggested daily ingestion of magnesium when the recommended dietary levels could not be established as in infants. The UL for supplemental magnesium in both the genders above 9 years of age is 350 mg. Exceeding the UL may lead to hypermagnesemia.
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References:
1.http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/
2.Kim DJ, Xun P, Liu K, et al. Magnesium in relation to systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and the incidence of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:2604–2610.
3.Rayssiguier Y, Libako P, Nowacki W, et al. Magnesium deficiency and metabolic syndrome: stress and inflammation may reflect calcium activation. Magnes Res. 2010;23:73–80.
4.http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400530/pdf/0708/Table_1_NIN_GEN_07.pdf
5.http://nutritionreviews.oxfordjournals.org/content/70/3/153.full
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Dietary magnesium (Mg) is present in rich proportions in several animal and plant food sources. Green leafy vegetables are rich in magnesium.
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Mg is a basic component of the chlorophyll which imparts the green color to leaves. Apart from leafy vegetables, magnesium is present in rich quantities in several legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices, whole grains, some fruits and fish. Depending upon the local soil richness, the drinking water can be a rich source of magnesium.
Though magnesium is abundantly available in many plant sources, the dietary surveys in USA reveal that the intakes of this essential mineral are lower than the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). The skewed nutritional status is primarily due to the changing food habits. The preference to fast foods, reduced consumption of greens and vegetables and increased use of refined or polished grains has lead to decrease in magnesium intake. Further, it is to be noted that natural magnesium rich foods are losing their nutrient value due excessive use of chemical fertilizers. Excessive irrigation can cause leaching of nutrients and chemicals from the root zone of agricultural fields.
*Dried pumpkin seed kernels are also very rich food sources of zinc. They also have rich protein content, nearly 30 mg/100 grams.
**Though peanuts are rich food sources, their rich fat content is a negative factor for using as such without defatting.
