Showing posts with label dha. Show all posts
Showing posts with label dha. Show all posts

Nutrition - DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) rich food sources

Jan 2014  › › › Food sources rich in DHA
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid, is a vital fat component in the brain and retinal tissue.
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For the proper development of brain and retina of the fetus, inclusion of sufficient DHA rich food sources like fish are necessary during the pregnancy. After the childbirth, there is rapid growth of brain in the newborn up to 12 months. The nursing mother has to consume more of rich food sources containing this fatty acid to keep up with the brain development in the child.

As the child grows, the docosahexaenoic acid requirements also grow for the further development and function of the brain. Throughout the adulthood DHA is necessary for maintaining mental health. The old age related mental decline, memory loss, cognitive decline and other mental disorders are possibly  the results of deficiency of the DHA in the food sources or malabsorption. However, the present American diet contains less than 100 mg of docosahexaenoic acid per day, far below the required daily allowance.

Indirect source of DHA

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid. It is an essential fatty acid. As human body cannot synthesize ALA, we have to include it in our food sources. ALA is helpful in energy production and there are no known independent benefits on brain or eye.  Normally seed oils are rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Chia, flaxseed, rapeseed, pumpkin seeds and walnuts are rich food sources. Alpha-linolenic acid is a precursor for the synthesis of docosahexaenoic acid and   in the body. However the process is inefficient and very small quantities of ALA get converted into DHA. Compared to women, there is further decline in the ALA to docosahexaenoic acid conversion in men.

, an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, competes with DHA and EPA for positions in cell membranes. Excess presence of ARA in fact can interfere with the docosahexaenoic acid synthesis. These omega-6 fatty acids reduce the amount of alpha-linolenic acid that's converted to EPA and DHA by up to 50%. Our present food habits contribute to intake of ARA rich sources and over-dosing in omega-6 fats. It is further affecting the conversion of ALA into DHA.

Preformed food sources of DHA

Considering the above facts, docosahexaenoic acid, being essential for many of the body functions, has to taken in the form of food or supplements. Most of the seafood such as fish, shellfish, mammals and microalgae are rich sources of preformed DHA.

Fish and fish oil
Among the fish, oily cold water fish are the rich sources of docosahexaenoic acid. Salmon contains up to 2000 mg of these fats per 6 ounce serving. Bluefin tuna, swordfish, anchovies, herring, sardines, pilchards and trout are some of the DHA rich foods. Fish oil is extracted from the fish and marketed for its high omega-3 fatty acid content.

Green lipped mussels
Green lipped mussel is a bivalve mollusk cultured extensively in New Zealand. It is consumed for its high protein and omega-3 values. Green lipped mussel oil extract and powder are marketed for their rich omega-3 fatty acid content and therapeutic values.


Hen have greater capacity for converting ALA into docosahexaenoic acid and EPA. When poultry feed is enriched with flaxseed, fish oil or , the eggs produced contain higher amounts of these omega-3 fatty acids.

Krill
Krill are shrimplike crustaceans found in all the world’s cold oceans. Krill body oil is rich in these omega-3 fatty acids. Due to its shell, cooking and consuming krill is difficult and unpalatable. Krill oil is extracted and marketed for its rich docosahexaenoic acid content.

Plant Sources
Marine weeds, algae and microalgae are also rich sources of DHA. NASA associated research led to the developing a strain of microalgae yielding docosahexaenoic acid rich oil. Now algal DHA is being added to many food products to fortify them. Vegetarians and vegans can use these food sources.

Now there are changing trends and 99% of the infant formula sold in the United States is fortified with algal DHA. Docosahexaenoic acid fortified food sources like beverages, milk, yogurt and breads are now available.
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Rich food sources of DHA.
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Omega-3 eggs - DHA eggs

Jan 2014  › › › DHA eggs - omega-3 eggs
Eggs branded "omega-3", "DHA' or "pastured" do contain omega-3 fats like Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).
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Even ordinary regular eggs also contain some amount of these fats. The crux of the problem is the lack of clarity in the types and quantities of fatty acids present in a particular product.

Free-range pasture poultry farming

Before the advent of intensive commercial poultry farming, free-range pasture poultry farming was practised wherein the birds were allowed to move around the land freely foraging on  worms, bugs, insects, leaves, grass, wild seeds etc. The natural feed and its variety helped in producing eggs which had good amount of omega-3, DHA and EPA. However these hen lay eggs only in the warmer months which limited the productivity.

In 2007, Mother Earth News egg testing project came to a conclusion that eggs of hens raised on pasture when compared to conventional commercial ones were likely to contain,
  • "1/3 less cholesterol
  • 1/4 less saturated fat
  • 2/3 more vitamin A
  • 2 times more omega-3 fatty acids
  • 3 times more vitamin E
  • 7 times more beta carotene".
Dr.Heather Karsten et all Of the College of Agricultural Sciences, University Park, Pennsylvania, in their study on the nutrient content of eggs have concluded that pastured birds produced about three times more omega-3 fat in their eggs than did birds raised on an industrial diet. The pasture dominated by legumes like clover and alfalfa added more omega-3 to the product than plain grass pasture. They also found that the increase in the fatty acids corresponds to its level in the foraged food. There is also a marked increase in the levels of vitamin A and E.

Factory eggs

The advent of 'battery cages' or factory poultry farming has no doubt increased the productivity as well as the profitability of poultry industry. The predominant components of fat sources in the poultry feed are corn and soy which are very high in omega-6 fats like arachidonic acid (ARA) and poor in DHA.

The change in the food habits and the fast food culture have skewed up the fatty acid composition of American diet, resulting in drastic increase in the levels of omega-6 fats and steep decline in docosahexaenoic acid and EPA content. Similarly the high-protein, high-energy poultry feed used in the egg factories has drastically brought down the DHA and EPA content and increased the omega-6 presence. The eggs produced in these factories are very high in ARA and low in omega-3 fats. Though arachidonic acid is required for the body, it can be harmful if consumed in excess as it is a precursor to many inflammatory processes. Further high levels of ARA affect the synthesis and utilization of docosahexaenoic acid.

Omega and DHA eggs

Alpha linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, is a precursor of the DHA and EPA. ALA is an essential fatty acid as the human body cannot synthesize it. It has to be necessarily sourced through our food. ALA is plentiful in flaxseed, hemp oil and walnuts. The conversion of ALA to docosahexaenoic acid is an inefficient process in the humans and to fulfil the body's requirements docosahexaenoic acid, it has to be consumed through the diet.

Docosahexaenoic acid is very important for the healthy functioning of the body organs, especially the brain. It was found in research studies that feeding hen with ALA rich feed or docosahexaenoic acid rich products, enhances the fatty acid content of the eggs greatly. The eggs producers have resorted to feed the chicken with flaxseed, fish oil or fish products to enhance the fatty acid content. The hen have greater capacity for converting ALA present in their feed to DHA. Omega-3 eggs may have 5 times as much Omega-3 as the conventional ones.

The market is flooded with fatty acid enriched eggs. Now the issue is the amount of docosahexaenoic acid present in these products. Depending upon the type docosahexaenoic acid source and its quantity added to the feed, the amount of DHA present may differ among the products from different hen stocks. Simultaneously the arachidonic acid content in the feed has to be checked as it is the precursor to many proinflammatory eicosanoids. Omega-3 egg or DHA egg can contribute to the healthy life. However they have to be consumed sparingly as their cholesterol content is high, almost contributing the total daily cholesterol requirement in one egg.

To sum up we may say that omega DHA enriched eggs help in increasing the docosahexaenoic acid content of our diets.
  • Eggs of pasture raised hen are also equally good.
  • We should not get carried away by the deceptive labels and look for real content of the product.
  • More than the total fatty acid content we have to look for the DHA content.
  • Considering the high cholesterol content, we have to restrict the consumption to one or two eggs a day.
  • As the omega-3 eggs may not fulfill the total docosahexaenoic acid requirements of our body, we have to augment our diet with DHA rich fish and other supplements like fish oil, algal oil, green lipped mussel oil or krill oil.
Reference:
1.http://news.psu.edu/story/140750/2003/05/01/research/pasture-ized-poultry
2.http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/tests-reveal-healthier-eggs.aspx#axzz2UN1KYYFO

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DHA eggs and omega-3 eggs
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Nutrition - DHA and pregnancy - DHA for mother

Mar 2014   › › DHA for mother and pregnancy
Research studies have established that adequate dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake by mother during pregnancy is vital for the proper development of the brain, nervous system and retina of the fetus.
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DHA for mother

Docosahexaenoic acid is the major structural fat constituent of the brain and retina. With the evolutionary progress towards higher intelligence, human brain size has also increased. Compared to the brain size of other mammals, human brain size, is quite large. To cope up with the docosahexaenoic acid demand of the fetus, there is selective DHA transfer from the mother to the fetus. Even after the birth, the newborn is provided with docosahexaenoic acid in breast milk. Compared to dairy milk, breast milk contains significant amounts this omega-3 fat.

Docosahexaenoic acid concentrations in breast milk range between 0.07% to to 1.0% of the total fatty acids, when the mother is taking normal diet. With the increased addition of fish or docosahexaenoic acid supplements in the diet, the DHA levels in the breast milk can increase drastically.

Considering the importance of docosahexaenoic acid, FDA had released an advisory to women planning a pregnancy, pregnant women and also breastfeeding women to eat up to 12 ounces of canned light tuna, catfish, pollock, salmon and shrimp in a week. Because of the possibility of toxins and mercury contamination, they are advised against eating shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish.

However majority of the pregnant women in United States fail to include the recommended amount of DHA in their diet. The fast food era has changed the food habits and there is a steep decrease in the consumption of preformed DHA resulting in low stores of docosahexaenoic acid in young women and would-be mothers.

DHA and pregnancy

Inadequate intake of docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy may cause low plasma and erythrocyte DHA levels leading to reduced cognitive development, retinal development, eye-hand coordination and visual acuity in the infant. International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) participated in the PERILIP consensus process and recommended an average dietary intake of at least 200 mg DHA/day for pregnant and lactating women.

There is threefold increase in the size of the fetal brain during the final trimester of pregnancy. The placenta selectively extracts DHA from the mother's blood and concentrates them in the fetal blood. During this preferential DHA transfer, substantial amounts of docosahexaenoic acid is transferred from the mother causing decline and depletion of this omega-3 fat in her blood.

By the end of last trimester the blood concentration of docosahexaenoic acid in the fetus may be twice that of mother. Nursing the newborn further depletes the mother. If the mother's diet is poor in this omega-3 fat during pregnancy, the supply to the fetus may become insufficient and affect the neurological and early visual development of the baby. The depletion of mother's DHA can cause Postpartum depression or postnatal depression. If not properly topped up with lost omega-3 fat in the mother, future pregnancy may result in infant with all the symptoms of docosahexaenoic acid depletion.

Susan E Carlson et all in their double-blind, randomized controlled trial conducted between January 2006 and October 2011 concluded that "A supplement of 600 mg DHA/d in the last half of gestation resulted in overall greater gestation duration and infant size". The reduction in preterm births and increase birth-weight will have a great positive impact on clinical mother and child care and public health.

An infant born at the end of full-term pregnancy will have greater brain growth when compared to a preterm child. Infants born preterm are at the risk of incomplete docosahexaenoic acid accumulation from the mother as they are denied the full gestation period to accumulate DHA.

Children whose mothers had higher blood levels of docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy, were found to have advanced levels of attention span, intelligence and visual acuity. Infants whose mothers included omega-3 supplements in their diets during pregnancy had fewer cold episodes and cold related symptoms. In a research study it was found that women with preeclampsia (hypertension during pregnancy) had lower levels of docosahexaenoic acid. It suggests that DHA suppplementation may protect against preeclampsia in mothers to-be.

References:
1.Susan E Carlson, John Colombo, Byron J Gajewski, Kathleen M Gustafson, David Mundy, John Yeast, Michael K Georgieff, Lisa A Markley, Elizabeth H Kerling, and D Jill Shaddy. DHA supplementation and pregnancy outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr April 2013 ajcn.050021.

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DHA - pregnancy - mother
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Nutrition - DHA for brain function

Mar 2014   › › DHA and brain
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) is critical for the health of the brain. It is now well established by research studies that the development, growth and function of human brain is positively influenced by the sufficient dietary availability of DHA.
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It helps in neurogenesis, neurotransmission, anti-inflammatory responses and protection against free radicals.

There are many general health benefits of long chain omega-3 fats, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). However the  neurological benefits of omega-3 fats are derived from the DHA rather than the EPA. Apart from genetic predispositions, nutritional deficiencies of omega-3 fats have been found to be the cause of emotional, mental and psychiatric disorders like depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

DHA and brain

Docosahexaenoic acid is the structural fat and the basic building blocks of our brain cells. It is found in high concentration in the gray matter and constitutes nearly 97% of the omega-3 fats in the brain.

In the brain cell membranes, it is incorporated into the membrane phospholipid components. Here it helps in the maintenance of a highly fluid microenvironment in the cell membranes of the nervous system which is conducive for electrical signaling. Docosahexaenoic acid is important for the transmission of brain signals and sustained enhancement of communication between the cells. For memory and learning, formation of the synaptic connections and sustained cell signaling and communication within the grey matter are vital.

Role of DHA in brain development

The proper development of the fetal brain and the nervous system will support the intelligence, cognitive abilities and mental function of the children and adults throughout life.

In the last trimester of pregnancy there is threefold increase in the size of the fetal brain. The mother's blood levels of DHA decline as they meet the fatty acid need of the fetus. The placenta extracts the docosahexaenoic acid from the mother's blood and concentrates them in the fetal blood. There is preferential DHA transfer to the fetus. As a result of this, the fetal levels of DHA may be twice that of the mother. If the mother's DHA levels are low, it is sourced from the brain of the mother. The depletion of mother's DHA can cause Postpartum depression or postnatal depression.

Research studies have shown that the mother's intake of dietary DHA has a direct effect on the development of the brain and retina of the fetus. The lack of DHA in food can affect the fetal mental development which will significantly impact the intelligence and memory of the individual.

Docosahexaenoic acid continue to be vital for the brain development even after birth. Research studies have also shown that breast milk contains higher amounts of docosahexaenoic acid when compared to dairy milk or the earlier formula feeds which were not fortified with DHA.
Breastfed children have been found to have higher Intelligence quotient (IQ) when compared to the formula feed fed children. In another study from UK, children fed with DHA fortified formula feed had higher scores in problem solving than those children fed with plain formula feed.

Many emotional, mental and psychiatric disorders in childhood like learning difficulties, disturbed mood, lack of concentration, poor memory, behavioral problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism have been linked to low levels of docosahexaenoic acid. Considering the beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid many formula feeds are being fortified with this fatty acid.

Role of DHA in adult brain function

Just like young children, it is very important to the elderly. In elderly people, nutritional deficiency of this omega-3 fat is one of the contributing factors of degenerative changes in the nervous system and mental decline. Dietary deficiency can initiate and also speed up the age-related deterioration of intellectual faculties leading to memory loss, learning difficulties, lack of concentration, poor judgment, mood swings, depression, dementia and Alzheimer's disease.

Fish is a great source of DHA. Elderly people who ate fish regularly had better working memory. Apart from supporting the metabolism of the brain, docosahexaenoic acid helps in controlling the proinflammatory pathways and processes involved in the degeneration of the nervous system.

Research studies have demonstrated that dietary deficiency of DHA is an important risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and dementia. In patients affected by multiple sclerosis, it is found that the blood levels of this fatty acid are low. In a research study it was found that when schizophrenic patients are treated with omega-3 fatty acids, they were relieved of the symptoms such as social withdrawal, lack of emotions, delusions, suicidal behavior, anger, and hostility and hallucinations.

Adequate nutritional DHA supply ensures that the cells in the brain and other parts of the nervous system develop and function properly from the fetus stage to old age.
Related topics in nutritional deficiency diseases:
Side effects of DHA.
DHA supplements.
Fat deficiency.
Fish oil - DHA - EPA.
DHA from algae.
Arachidonic acid Foods.
Two essential fatty acids.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids structure.
Examples of monounsaturated fats.
Trans fats definition.

Reference:
1.Sheila M. Innis. Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development. 2007 American Society for Nutrition.
2.Kidd PM. Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behavior, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. Altern Med Rev. 2007 Sep;12(3):207-27.

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DHA in brain
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Nutrition - DHA side effects

Mar 2014   › › Side effects of DHA
DHA supplements can cause minor side effects. However, if high doses of the supplement are taken, serious side effects can develop.
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The signs of internal bleeding, giddiness and allergic reactions require immediate discontinuance of the supplement and seeking medical help.

Common side effects of DHA

  • Nausea
  • Belching
  • Bloating
  • Fishy aftertaste
  • Fishy burps
  • Halitosis
  • Acid reflux
  • Abdominal discomfort
  • Flatulence
  • Constipation
  • Gastrointestinal upset
  • Diarrhea
  • Nosebleeds
  • Bruising
The side effects of DHA can be due to docosahexaenoic acid itself. Some people may develop nausea and belching while taking DHA supplement. Taking DHA with food may help prevent or lessen these side effects. DHA can cause blood thinning. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) can cause greater blood thinning. As most of DHA supplements have EPA also in them, there may be occasional bruising and nosebleeds. Cuts and wounds may take longer time to stop bleeding and wound healing may get prolonged.

Some of the serious side effects include, gastrointestinal bleeding, bleeding in the brain and allergic reactions.
If the stool is dark or bloody or if there is blood in the vomit, the supplement must be discontinued immediately. Severe headache, numbness in the limbs and changes in the vision and speech may indicate hemorrhage in the brain.

Allergic reactions like rash, urticaria, angioedema, wheezing, difficulty in breathing or swallowing and asthmatic attack may occur in some persons. In all such situations one has to discontinue the supplement and seek immediate medical help.

The side effects may also be relative to the type of supplement consumed. Fishy aftertaste is a very common problem while taking fish oil. To reduce this side effect one may take the supplement along with food. In fish oil supplement, if it is not purified properly, there is a possibility of contamination with toxins or heavy metals. Fish oil supplements may cause slight increases in fasting blood glucose levels, particularly in those with Type 2 diabetes.

Interacting DHA side effects

Hypertension

DHA supplements have the tendency to decrease the blood pressure. Persons with hypertension are prescribed antihypertensives like enalapril, atenolol, doxazosin, bucindolol, valsartan, furosemide, amlodipine and clonidine. Taking DHA along with these medicines can cause the blood pressure to go too low. Sudden giddiness, blurred vision, shallow breathing and cold, clammy, pale skin are the signs of low blood pressure (hypotension).

Anticoagulant medication

Certain cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions require the use of medications such as heparin, warfarin or aspirin to slow down blood clotting (anticoagulant). As omega-3 fatty acids, including DHA have blood thinning actions, taking them along with the anticoagulant medication can increase the risk of bruising and bleeding. At higher doses there may be internal bleeding and the risk of edema and even stroke.

Aspirin-sensitivity

In persons with aspirin intolerance and sensitivity, the intake of DHA supplements can worsen the condition with side effects like persistent cough, asthma and other breathing difficulties.

Immunosuppression

DHA supplement has anti-inflammatory function and may suppress the inflammatory responses of the immune system. In persons suffering from immunodeficiency diseases, such immunosuppression can have severe consequences.
Related topics in Nutritional deficiency diseases:
Scurvy causes.
Excess vitamin C.
Ascorbic acid functions.
Vitamin C fruits.
Carbohydrate deficiency diseases.
Fat deficiency diseases.
Mineral deficiency diseases.
Protein energy malnutrition in children.
DHA benefits.
DHA fatty acid.
Current topic in Nutritional deficiency diseases:
Side effects of DHA
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Fatty acid - DHA supplements

Mar 2014   › › DHA supplements
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is vital for overall health and recent research studies have indicated an array of health benefits in taking DHA supplements.
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Many chronic disease conditions in the human body are brought about by the excessive immune responses and inflammatory processes. DHA supplements have been found to reduce these inflammatory processes. Considering these benefits, it is being recommended to include fatty fish at least twice a week in the diet.

Though DHA can be synthesized from alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) by the body, the capacity for conversion has been found to be very low.
Hence it becomes necessary for us to consume DHA food sources like fatty fish or take DHA supplements to protect ourselves from
fatty acid deficiency diseases.

Graham C. Burdge et all in their study on ALA metabolism have concluded that the capacity of adult males to convert ALA to DHA was either very low or absent. Hence the uptake of pre-formed DHA in diet as fatty fish or as supplements is critical for maintaining adequate membrane DHA concentrations.

Pregnant women, nursing women, infants and children are the highly vulnerable group for developing DHA deficiency as their DHA requirements are high. People taking vegetarian food and vegans also are vulnerable group for developing the deficiency. Some of the supplements are discussed here.

Fish oil fatty acid supplements

Fish lipids include up to 40 percent of polyunsaturated long-chain fatty acids. Fish oil from cold water oceanic fatty fish is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Fatty fish from cold waters have more omega-3 fatty acids in their body.

Bigger fish higher on the food chain accumulate toxins and heavy metals. The smaller plankton feeding fish are less contaminated. The FDA released an advisory about eating fish. Woman planning a pregnancy, Pregnant women and breastfeeding women are advised against eating shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish as they contain high levels of mercury. The FDA recommended eating two meals, or up to 12 ounces a week, canned light tuna, catfish, pollock, salmon and shrimp.

The amount of DHA fatty acids vary among the brands of fish oil supplements (10% - 20%). The amount of EPA is greater than DHA in many of the brands. The main disadvantages of fish oil supplements is the level of purity. The fatty acids in the supplements tend to become rancid and the quality of the fish oil degrades fast.

Krill oil supplements

Krill are small crustaceans found in the oceans. Krill oil is extracted from the krill species (Euphausia superba). Krill are plankton feeders and are lower on the food chain. Usually krill oil does not contain any toxic contaminant.

Moreover, 50% the DHA in krill oil is attached to phospholipids. In phospholipid form the bioavailability of supplements is greatly increased. The astaxanthin present in krill oil is a potent antioxidant and it also protects the fatty acid supplement from turning rancid.

Krill is the largest biomass in the world. Most of the marine animals are dependent directly or indirectly on krill for their survival. Hence overexploitation of krill will be disastrous. Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is seized of this issue.

Algal supplements

Production of DHA from algae is a spin off from NASA research. Algal DHA is produced from microalgae grown in ponds. As such in this culture method there is no depletion of natural resources. Food contaminants can be totally avoided in the farm culture.

As algal DHA is plant based it is preferred by vegetarians and vegans. The fatty algal extract is rich in DHA and very little EPA is present. As the product is plant based it can be an ideal source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians and vegans.

Green-lipped mussel oil and powder

Dietary shellfish supplements have been the traditional remedy for inflammatory diseases like arthritis in humans. Green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is cultured in coastal farms located in sheltered or semi-sheltered areas of New Zealand. Natural  mussel spat (seed mussels) encrusted on drift kelp is collected and introduced into the modified Japanese longline system. The sufficient availability of natural seed will reflect on the production trends.

Apart from DHA and EPA, green-lipped mussel oil or powder supplement contains a unique omega-3 fatty acid, eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA). It is well known that arachidonic acid oxygenation related metabolites play a major role in the inflammatory processes. ETA is found to selectively block cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase pathways of inflammatory processes. Fatty acids DHA and ETA enhance the anti-inflammatory function of the fatty mussel extract.

Being a filter feeding animal, green-lipped mussel passes large amounts of seawater through its filters to collect its food. Filter feeding can accumulate toxins and mercury in its fatty flesh.

Concerns

All these supplements have excellent health benefits. The issues concerned with the selection of the most beneficial supplement are:
  • the toxins and heavy metal presence,
  • the action taken to remove contaminants, 
  • the concentration of DHA,
  • the display or non-display of content in the labels, 
  • the use of additives and preservatives,
  • the oxidative process in the product,
  • the environment from where they are caught and
  • the process involved in the production of the DHA supplement.

Related topics in nutritional deficiency diseases:
Deficiency diseases of proteins.
Krill oil omega-3.
Protein energy malnutrition in children.
Definition of trans fatty acids.
Deficiency diseases of minerals.
DHA and health.
Deficiency diseases of vitamins.
DHA from algae.
Deficiency diseases of carbohydrates.
Fish oil DHA and EPA. Current topic in nutritional deficiency diseases:
Supplements of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
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DHA and health - Benefits of DHA

Mar 2014   › › Health benefits of DHA
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an important omega-3 fat. Recent research studies have associated an array of health benefits with dietary intake of DHA.
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To some extent it can be synthesized by our body from alpha-linolenic acid. Pre-formed docosahexaenoic acid is available in marine sources like fish, krill, microalgae and shellfish.

Health benefits

DHA is a major structural fat component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, testicles and retina. Obviously it is very important for the healthy function of these organs and tissues. The brain and the retinal tissues are highly dependent on it for membrane fluidity and signal transduction. DHA has a positive effect on disorders such as hypertension, arthritis, Alzheimer's Disease, atherosclerosis, depression, ADHD and some cancers.

Mental health

DHA supplementation has been found to delay the onset and also reduce the effects of mental disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and depression.

Alzheimer's Disease and cognitive decline
Docosahexaenoic acid deficiency is associated with cognitive decline. In the brain of persons affected by Alzheimer disease (AD), DHA concentration in membrane phospholipids at synapses and in retinal photoreceptors decreases.

IN AD, the accumulation of extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide, promotes proinflammatory responses, activates neurotoxic pathways and leads to brain cell dysfunction and death. Dietary supplements counteract Aβ production and accumulation and promote survival in stressed human brain cells. (Walter J. Lukiw et all).

Another health benefit of DHA is in increase in the quality of life of the elderly. Apart from reducing the decline in cognitive performance, it slows the aging process. It slows the telomere shortening, a genetic sign of aging.

Health benefits in depression
DHA deficiency is associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicide. In patients with MDD, there is deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid in the orbitofrontal cortex region.

Health benefits in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder have reduced DHA levels and the intake of docosahexaenoic acid improves the symptoms of ADHD. Insufficient sensorimotor gating is one of the causes for ADHD. Increase in the brain levels of this fatty acid helps in improving sensorimotor gating.

Cardiovascular health benefits

DHA supplementation has been found to improve cardiovascular health. Inflammatory processes are important contributors of cardiovascular disease (CVD), atherosclerotic lesions and their rupture. The DHA benefits include reduction in the concentration of inflammatory biomarker of cardiovascular disease, C-reactive protein (CRP). Docosahexaenoic acid decreases the fasting and postprandial triglycerides. The concentration of small dense LDL particles is decreased whereas large LDL particles is increased. By altering the blood lipid, DHA lessens the inflammatory response. (Darshan S. Kelley et all). Maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides is a health benefit of dietary DHA.

Health benefits during fetal and neonatal development

The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially DHA, are very important for fetal and neonatal development. The development and function of the brain and the retinal tissues are highly dependent on docosahexaenoic acid for membrane fluidity and signal transduction. It may be the contributing factor in cognitive development, bone turnover and adipogenesis. Its health benefits include proper development of optimal visual acuity and neural development.

Breast milk is found to be rich in DHA and breast-fed children show improved cognitive skills. Similarly the infants given formula feed with the supplement showed better cognitive performance. In children of mothers who often ate fish during pregnancy, there was marked increase in I.Q. for their age.

Visual development and function
Docosahexaenoic acid is a major structural component of brain and eye and is vital for their development and function. Docosahexaenoic acid, prevents photoreceptor apoptosis during early development.

Tumor inhibition benefits

DHA supplements have been found to inhibit growth of human colon carcinoma cells. According to a study by Kato T. et all, dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplements, especially docosahexaenoic acid, have significant tumor inhibiting properties. In populations who eat more fish, there is low risk of developing prostate cancer.

Related topics on nutritional deficiency diseases:
Polyunsaturated fat structure.
Monounsaturated fat examples.
Definition of trans fats.
Examples of unsaturated fats.
Protein energy malnutrition in children.
Vitamin deficiency diseases.
Two essential fatty acids.
Nutritional deficiency diseases.
Deficiency diseases of fats.
DHA supplements.


References:
1.Carlo Agostoni et all. EFSA Journal 2010;8(10):1734 [27 pp.]. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1734
2.Sarah J. Carlson, Erica M. Fallon, Brian T. Kalish, Kathleen M. Gura, Mark Puder. The Role of the ω-3 Fatty Acid DHA in the Human Life Cycle. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr January 2013 vol. 37 no. 1 15-22.
3.Darshan S. Kelley, David Siegel, Dawn M. Fedor, Yuriko Adkins and Bruce E. Mackey. DHA Supplementation Decreases Serum C-Reactive Protein and Other Markers of Inflammation in Hypertriglyceridemic Men.  J Nutr. 2009 March; 139(3): 495–501.

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Fish oil - DHA - EPA

Mar 2014   › › Fish oil with DHA and EPA
Fish oil is extracted from the fatty tissue and the liver of fish. Fish liver oil has been an age old remedy for treating joint pains, rheumatoid arthritis conditions and vitamin A and D deficiency.
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With the improved processing technologies the shift has been towards extracting the body oil for its contents of
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

The importance of DHA and EPA

ALA, DHA and EPA are very important polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids. They are required for many biochemical reactions in the human body. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), is an essential omega-3 fatty acid. Our body cannot synthesize ALA and we necessarily have to consume it in our diet. It is available in vegetable oils, flaxseed, rapeseed and soybeans. The long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, DHA and EPA, can be synthesized by the body from ALA but with low efficiency.

DHA and EPA become conditionally essential when ALA cannot be converted due to poor dietary intake, malnutrition, malabsorption or impaired enzyme mechanism. The rich sources of DHA and EPA are fish, krill and microalgae. Many research studies have indicated the importance these omega-3 fats in reducing risks of many inflammatory disorders such as ADHD, cardiovascular diseases and autoimmune diseases.  

Health benefits of DHA and EPA in fish oil

Research studies have indicated an array of health benefits in taking fish oil supplements.
  • Consumption of DHA and EPA has been found to decrease hypertension, decrease platelet aggregation and reduce the risk of arrhythmia and heart attack.
  • EPA reduces the risk of depression, anxiety, aggressive behavior and suicide.
  • Polyunsaturated omega-3 fats improves the brain function leading increased concentration and memory.
  • In persons with hallucinations or delusions, omega-3 fats prevent the onset of schizophrenia.
  • DHA in fish oil is found to be responsible for slowing down the progress of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive problems.
  • The American Heart Association recommends the consumption of 1g of fish oil daily for patients with coronary heart disease.
  • There is a possibility of anti-cancer effects, especially against breast cancer from omega-3 fats.
  • Omega-3 fats have anti-inflammatory function and reduce the risk of inflammatory disorders.
  • Fish oil alleviates the conditions of allergies and psoriasis.
  • Fish oil helps in proper fetal brain development, early visual development, psycho motor development and neurodevelopment.

How do fish get DHA and EPA

Microalgae have the capacity to make the polyunsaturated omega-3 fats. Fish cannot not synthesize the omega-3s. They accumulate the DHA and EPA in their tissues by eating food rich in these omega-3 fats. Smaller fish eat microalgae and accumulate these fatty acids in their tissues. The bigger ones preying on these small fish accumulate higher concentrations in their flesh.

Safety in eating fish

A big draw back in sourcing our requirement of DHA and EPA from fish is the accumulation of toxins in their flesh.
With high level of pollutant discharges into the coastal waters, many marine regions have become polluted with toxic contaminants such as PCBs, mercury, dioxin and chlordane. Fish which are on the higher levels in the food chain, though have higher concentrations of polyunsaturated omega-3 also have high concentration of these toxic contaminants in their tissues. There is a real concern about eating fish and fish oil and the possibility of simultaneously consuming harmful PCBs and methyl mercury.

FDA advisories

FDA had released an advisory about eating fish specifically for women who were pregnant, were planning a pregnancy or were nursing a baby. They were advised against eating shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish for their high mercury content. However FDA recommended eating safer fish like canned light tuna catfish, pollock, salmon and shrimp for their protein and omega-3 values. FDA also recommended checking local advisories for local catches from lakes and waterways.

Side effects and dangers

The side effects may include nausea, bloating, flatulence, belching and diarrhea.
As DHA and EPA in fish oil have blood thinning effects, taking it along with blood-thinning medications can cause serious bleeding.
Those taking blood-thinning medications such as aspirin, warfarin or clopidogrel must take fish oil only under the supervision of their physician.

Fish oil with DHA and EPA is unstable unless antioxidative protection is present. It can turn rancid and spoil. Peroxides are formed during spoilage affecting gastrointestinal tract. The concentration of the polyunsaturated omega-3s and their ratio may vary from brand to brand depending upon the methods of processing. Some fish oils may not contained the amount of DHA and EPA as claimed on the label. Proper institutional regularization is the need of the day.

Related posts in nutritional deficiency diseases:
Definition of saturated fatty acids.
Definition of unsaturated fatty acids.
Examples of unsaturated fatty acids.
Definition of trans fatty acids.
Examples of monounsaturated fatty acids.
Structure of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Two essential fatty acids.
Arachidonic acid foods.
DHA from algae.
Krill EPA.


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DHA from algae

Mar 2014   › › Algal DHA
The discovery of algal DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) is the spin off of the NASA sponsored scientific research in early 1980s.
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The experiment was to use algae as a food supply, a source of oxygen and a catalyst for waste disposal in space missions. Martek Biosciences Corporation, Columbia, Maryland, while working on the results of the NASA program, have developed the commercial product 'Formulaid'. Its ingredient is an algae-based, vegetable like oil containing two polyunsaturated fatty acids known as DHA and
ARA (arachidonic acid).

Algal DHA benefits

DHA is the major component of omega-3 fatty acids in the brain. According Martek literature "DHA and ARA are the predominant fatty acids in the grey matter of the brain and DHA is particularly enriched in the retina." More and more benefits of DHA in maintaining and improving age-related ailments are being demonstrated. It is a precursor of anti-inflammatory agents and also has the potential to reduce platelet aggregation. There have been marked improvement in cognitive, learning and memory skills in elders after taking algal DHA supplements for six months.

DHA vs ARA

Though DHA (omega-3) and ARA (omega-6) are important nutrients for the health, excess of ARA promotes inflammation and platelet stickiness. Modern diet is favoring cheap and abundantly available omega-6. Algal DHA supplements are also becoming cheaper. Today Americans' diets are skewed with very high proportion of arachidonic acid with very little DHA. Less than 100 mg of DHA per day is being consumed. The ratio of ARA:DHA in present diet is around 10:1 to 20:1, whereas the healthy ratio is between 2:1 and 3:1. This type of malnutrition has lead to rise in many chronic inflammatory disorders in the population. Trans fats, fried foods and fast foods are the culprits. Food items prepared to satiate the taste rather than the nutritional needs have caused this havoc in the health.

DHA from algae vs other sources

The human body can directly synthesize DHA from the omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) but not very efficiently. Hence the necessity for finding a cheap, efficient and easily available source. Docosahexaenoic acid sources are algal oil, fish oil and krill oil. Each type of the source has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Fish oil have been the major source of docosahexaenoic acid and * eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish obtain these fatty acids from their diet of plankton. Fish oil has many side effects like flatulence, nausea and upset-stomach. Further the fishy smell when belching is highly disgusting for many. Unlike algal oil, fish oil has the high risk of accumulated toxins and heavy metals. Further fish is a limited resource, is being over-exploited and is under the threat of depletion.

Krill oil is another major source of DHA and EPA. Krill accumulate these fatty acids from their food, again, plankton. Though currently pollution-free, when compared to fish oil, it is also under the risk of over-exploitation. Krill is the major source of many marine animals including the blue whale. Direct exploitation of krill can lead to disastrous results for the marine life. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is currently seized with the issue. Further vegetarians and vegans prefer not to consume these animal sources.

Algal DHA production involves growing specific species and strains of algae in inland farms under controlled pollution-free environment. They are not genetically modified and only selective strain selection is done to meet the productive and commercial viability. The production is sustainable and the algae directly make the docosahexaenoic acid. As the products are plant based, they are eligible for certification as vegetarian, kosher, halal and organic.

Algal DHA supplementation has been found to be heart-friendly, by reducing the triglycerides serum level and increasing HDL-cholesterol levels. However there is also an increase in the levels of LDL-cholesterol which made the researchers apprehensive. Further research indicated that though there is an increase in LDL-cholesterol, the type of LDL-cholesterol has changed with an increase in the size of the particles. Larger LDL particles are possibly less-atherogenic. Many algal DHA supplements are now available as foods, baby foods and beverages.

Related topics on nutritional deficiency diseases:
Carbohydrate deficiency diseases.
Two essential fatty acids.
Vitamin deficiency diseases.
Nutritional deficiency diseases.
Protein energy malnutrition in children.
Protein deficiency diseases.
Mineral deficiency diseases.
Fat deficiency diseases.
Krill DHA.

Reference:
http://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff1996/42.html

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Krill oil omega-3 fatty acids - Krill DHA - Krill EPA

Mar 2014   › › Omega-3 DHA and EPA in krill oil
Krill, small shrimp-like crustaceans, are very important food sources of many marine animals including the largest known animal species, the blue whale.
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Krill is a rich source of omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Omega-3 fats like, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA and docosahexaenoic acid are very important for the biological functions of the human body. In the recent years, the role of PUFA nutrition in stress-resilience, neurodevelopment and neurocognition has been recognised. Recent research studies have associated the risk of diseases such as inflammation, neurodegenerative disorders and neuropsychiatric disorders with the nutritional deficiency of EPA and docosahexaenoic acid.

Omega fats -ALA, EPA and DHA

ALA is available from plant based foods like vegetable fats, walnuts and algae. EPA and DHA are present in marine sources of food such as fish, algae and krill. However ALA form of omega-3 is not directly used by the body and it has to be metabolized into EPA and DHA for the utilization of the body. ALA is not well-absorbed in the intestines and vegans have the risk of developing nutritional deficiency diseases of omega-3 fats. Though ALA supplementation appears to increase the EPA, there is not much increase in docosahexaenoic acid in phospholipids. Administration of preformed docosahexaenoic acid shows significant increase in its proportion in phospholipids.

What is krill oil?

Krill is shrimp-like crustacean thriving in oceans forming swarms. The body of this crustacean contains lipids in the form of oil. Though there are more than eighty species of krill, the most sought after species are Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba. Antarctic krill has higher concentrations of omega-3 EPA, docosahexaenoic acid and astaxanthin antioxidant.

The nutritional value of krill increases with the Antarctic summer with increased availability of their food, phytoplankton. The right harvesting time will be at the end of an Antarctic summer. Soon after the harvest, the krill are quick-frozen to preserve their nutritional value. Two extraction methods, namely hexane extraction and cold-vacuum extraction process are used for the extraction of krill oil. In hexane extraction, small quantities of the chemical may remain back in the end product. In cold-vacuum extraction process, the nutrients are not affected and no additives are present.

Bioavailability of krill DHA and EPA

Compared to fish fats, docosahexaenoic acid content of the krill oil is similar, but the EPA content of fish oil is higher. In fish, the fats are stored as triglycerides. However, in krill oil about 50% of the FAs are attached to phospholipids, especially phosphatidylcholine. Research studies have indicated that omega-3 fats as phospholipids are better absorbed than those from triglycerides. Bioavailability of docosahexaenoic acid in the plasma and its concentration in the target cell membranes increased substantially when ingested as phospholipids.

Stine M. Ulven et all in their comparative study of krill oil and fish fats found that when "the daily EPA + DHA dose in the krill oil group was 62.8% of the dosage given in the fish oil group", "Plasma levels of EPA, docosahexaenoic acid, and DPA increased significantly from baseline to the end of the intervention phase" but there was no significant difference in the change of omega-3 fats between the fish fats and the krill oil groups. It was concluded that omega-3 fats from krill oil are readily and effectively absorbed after ingestion and subsequently distributed in the blood.

Health benefits of krill oil

  • It contains omega-3 EPA and DHA in phospholipid structure which increases the absorbability.
  • Though a marine source, the risk of contamination with heavy metals is minimal.
  • It is also a natural source of vitamins A, D and E.
  • The potent antioxidant, astaxanthin, present in krill oil increases the shelf-life of the product.
  • Many antioxidant benefits are realized from the krill lipids.
  • Omega-3 fats like EPA have shown immense benefits in hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and coronary heart disease.
  • Omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid and EPA generate neuroprotective metabolites alleviating the conditions of ADHD, dyslexia, autism, schizophrenia, personality disorder, bipolar disorder, cognitive impairment, cognitive decline and psychosis.
  • Omega-3 fats, docosahexaenoic acid and EPA are required for the neurodevelopment of the fetus and for treating maternal depression.
  • Omega-3 fats docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid are effective in treating inflammation and pain due rheumatoid arthritis.
Omega-3 krill oil has few side effects. Rarely some people may suffer from belching, nausea, bloating, or diarrhea. People using hypertension medication, diabetes medication, anticoagulants, weight loss medicines must consult their health care provider before using krill lipid supplements as they may be contraindicated.
Related topics on Nutritional deficiency diseases:
DHA and pregnancy.
DHA and brain.
Omega 3 fatty acids food sources
DHA food sources.
DHA side effects.
Algal DHA.
DHA fish oil.
DHA supplements.
Arachidonic acid (ARA).


References:
1.Stine M. Ulven, Bente Kirkhus, Amandine Lamglait, Samar Basu, Elisabeth Elind, Trond Haider, Kjetil Berge, Hogne Vik,  Jan I. Pedersen. Metabolic Effects of Krill Oil are Essentially Similar to Those of Fish Oil but at Lower Dose of EPA and DHA, in Healthy Volunteers. Lipids. 2011 January; 46(1): 37–46.
2.Joanne Bradbury. Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): An Ancient Nutrient for the Modern Human Brain. Nutrients. 2011 May; 3(5): 529–554.

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Docosahexaenoic acid - DHA

Mar 2014   › › Docosahexaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a polyunsaturated 22-carbon omega-3 conditionally essential fatty acid. In humans, DHA is not an essential fatty acid (EFA) as it can be synthesized from dietary alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).
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However it is essential for many biochemical and metabolic functions of the brain and the body. Docosahexaenoic acid is an important structural fat component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, spermatozoa, dermis, testes and retina. Food sources of DHA are maternal milk, fish oil, algae and krill.

In the absence of sufficient dietary ALA or in an inability of the body to synthesize DHA from ALA due to defective DHA-synthesizing enzyme, dietary sources of docosahexaenoic acid becomes essential for the functions of the organs of the human body, especially brain.

Structure and properties of docosahexaenoic acid

DHA is an organic carboxylic acid characterized by the presence of carboxyl group. It has 22-carbon chain and six cis double bonds. The first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end. Its systematic name is all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexa-enoic acid. The IUPAC name of docosahexaenoic acid is (4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid; Doconexent.
Trivial name of DHA is cervonic acid and its shorthand name in the nomenclature of FA is 22:6(n-3).

It is a weak acid with a boiling point of 446.7 °C. Its molecular formula is C22H32O2.
The chemical structure of DHA is:
Chemical structure of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic acid synthesis

DHA is synthesized in the body by ALA metabolism.
It is synthesized from eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) via docosapentaenoic acid as an intermediate.
By the Sprecher's shunt pathway EPA is elongated twice to yield 24:5 ω-3.
It is then desaturated to 24:6 ω-3.
24:6 ω-3, via beta oxidation is shortened to 22:6 ω-3 (DHA).

DHA for brain

Docosahexaenoic acid is the major fat in the brain phospholipids.
It is required for the healthy development of brain in the infants.
In adults it is very much required for the proper brain functions.
Depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), cognitive decline, dementia, Alzheimer's disease and decline of mental health have been associated with the deficiency of this FA.
In stroke patients, supplementation has been found to decrease the brain damage and speed up recovery.

DHA and pregnancy

Dietary docosahexaenoic acid is important for the developing fetus and for healthy breast milk in nursing mothers.
In United States majority of pregnant women consume between 45 mg and 115 mg of docosahexaenoic acid per day in their diets, whereas the recommended level is 300 mg per day.
Babies of women taking supplements of this FA during pregnancy have been found to have greater resistance against cold.

Low plasma levels of DHA have been associated with poor retinal development, low visual acuity, and poor cognitive development.
The concentration of this FA in the breast milk is around 0.34% of the total fats present.
If the mother's diet is high in fish, the average increases.

DHA health benefits

  • Docosahexaenoic acid is very essential for all the neurological functions of the brain.
  • Use of the fish oil supplements during pregnancy improves the neurological development of the fetus as well as ensuring the sufficiency of the omega-3 fat in the breast milk.
  • Dietary docosahexaenoic acid, by reducing the level of blood triglycerides, reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
  • It is a major fat component of retina and accounts for 60% of PUFA in retina. Patients with retinitis pigmentosa are found to have very low levels of this FA.
  • In persons taking the supplements of this FA there is marked decrease in the concentrations of several inflammatory markers in their blood.
  • Apart from increasing the efficacy of chemotherapy in prostate cancer, it is found to inhibit human colon carcinoma growth.
  • Considering the benefits to the heart, the American Heart Association recommends eating fatty fish, at least twice a week.
  • Several studies have indicated that fish oil helps in reducing the pain symptoms and inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
  • When the supplement is taken regularly, the pain of menstrual cramps is reduced.

DHA food sources

Cold water fish and fish oils are rich sources of docosahexaenoic acid. According to USDA cooked salmon contain 500–1500 mg DHA per 100 grams. Mackerel, anchovies, lake trout, herring, sardines, tuna, bluefin tuna and swordfish are other rich food sources for this FA. For infants breast milk is the best source. Fish oils, algae-based, vegetable-like oil and fish liver oils are also good food sources.

DHA side effects

  • In some persons, consuming fish oil, may cause side effects like belching, nausea, upset stomach and diarrhea.
  • Docosahexaenoic acid can increase the bleeding time and persons taking blood-thinning medication/anticoagulants should take the supplements with caution.
  • Patients undergoing treatment for hypertension should consult a doctor before taking fish oil supplement as along with BP medication it can cause low blood pressure.
  • As the fish oil supplements can lower the blood sugar, in persons taking diabetes medicine, blood sugar levels may get too low.

DHA supplements

Major supplements of these omega-3 fats are fish oil, algal oil and krill oil. Docosahexaenoic acid fortified milk, yogurt, cooking oil etc are being made available. Docosahexaenoic acid single-cell oil (DHASCO) is being added in infant feed supplements. Vegan diets do not contain this FA and the product extracted from algae is considered as a vegetarian source. Very low levels of docosahexaenoic acid in fetus and breast milk in vegans is of great concern.

DHA fish oil

Fish oil is sold in gelatin capsules containing a mixture of omega-3 family containing both EPA and docosahexaenoic acid, the later being present in smaller quantities. As the fish caught in the polluted seas can accumulate the heavy metals like mercury their use for fish oil extraction is harmful to the users. There has to be a testing mechanism all over the world for these fish products.

Algal DHA

NASA sponsored scientific research lead to the discovery of algae-based docosahexaenoic acid. This algae-based, vegetable-like oil contains docosahexaenoic acid and ARA. Other Vegetarian sources come from seaweeds. Farm raised algae are sustainable source of the omega-3 fats. These algal products can carry a vegetarian label and also certification as kosher, halal and organic.

DHA in krill

Krill are tiny shrimp-like crustaceans found in the Antarctic Ocean. Krill oil contains long-chain polyunsaturated fats of the omega-3 family, EPA and docosahexaenoic acid. The great advantage of krill oil is that both these omega-3 fats come attached to phospholipids, mostly phosphatidylcholine. This structural difference of the attachment makes their absorption and utilization more efficient. In this aspect krill oil is more preferred supplement of docosahexaenoic acid than fish oil.
Related topics in Nutrition, Deficiency & Diseases:
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).
Arachidonic acid (ARA).
Rickets symptoms.
Pellagra symptoms.
Osteomalacia symptoms.
Scurvy symptoms.
Beriberi symptoms.

Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DHA_numbers.svg
Image author: Timlev37
Image license: public domain

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